Yes, corrosion can kill a car battery if the damage is serious enough.
Corrosion is the result of hydrogen gas produced from the battery’s acid when it leaks and mixes with the air. Then, it crystallizes into the flaky substance you observed.
There are two possibilities here.
First, your battery may simply need a thorough cleaning. Corrosion can impede the flow of electricity by blocking the contacts. In this case, disconnect the battery and then clean it well with a toothbrush and mild household acid like vinegar before reconnecting the terminals.
Second, your battery might be beyond recovery if the terminal and other metal parts have been thoroughly destroyed by corrosion. In this case, you will need to replace the battery entirely.
You can always try cleaning the battery first and see how it performs. Depending on how long your vehicle has been in storage, you might need to bite the bullet and buy a new battery.
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